Culture Of Punjab. (Punjab Province of Pakistan)

Culture Of Punjab

        Punjab (the land of five rivers) is the biggest land area of Pakistan and is popularly known for its culture. It shares most of its cultural and carnival values with Indian culture. According to population, 56% of the total population of the country is situated in Punjab Province. It has a total of 36 districts and contributes approximately 50-60 % of the economy.

Punjabi Culture is one of the oldest in world history, dating from ancient antiquity to the modern era. The scope, history, complexity and density of the culture are vast. Some of the main areas of the Punjabi culture include: Punjabi cuisine, philosophy, poetry, artistry, music, architecture, traditions and values and history. Some cities of Punjab have more importance for Sikh community from India. The founder of Sikh religion was born in Nankana Sahib, a district of Punjab so Sikh from different parts of world come and visits Punjab. Jahngir tomb and Badshahi Masjid in Lahore are the important places of Pakistan. Data Sahib is very scared place in Punjab and most of the people come and visit Data sahib every year.

                            

People

Punjabi people are very warm hearted and fun loving. Punjabis are heterogeneous group comprising of different tribes, clans, communities and are known to celebrate each and every tradition of their culture. People of Punjab have strong beliefs on pir-faqeers, jogi, taweez, manat-ka-dhaga, saint of repute, black magic, and other superstitions, however recently due to increase of literacy, people have become somewhat rational . Punjabis also believe in cast system but as now people are getting educated, the differences are getting blurred. Some popular casts of Punjabi’s are; Jats, Maliks, Mughals, Arains, Gujjars, Awans, Rajputs, Gakhars, Khokhars, Sheikhs, Aheers, Kambohs, Niazis, Legharis, Khosas, Dogars, Thaheem, Mirani, Qureshis, and Syeds.

In villages’ people usually live in small communities (biradaris), however they live in peace and harmony with each other. They take active part in the happiness/grieve of each other and give a great deal of respect to their culture, norms and run their lives according to their set traditions. Punjabi people are famous for their hospitable and loving nature.

                                                                                                                               

Languages

Punjabi is the provincial language of Punjab. It is spoken as the first language by majority people in Punjab, even spoken and understood in areas beyond the confines of Punjab. Facts and figures show that Punjabi language is spoken as first language by 44% of Pakistanis. Urdu language is also commonly spoken in this region. Key Punjabi languages/dialects are:

·                              Pothowari

·                              Hindko

·                              Jhangvi

·                              Shahpuri

·                              Pahari

·                              Majhi

·                              Saraiki

Dresses

Costumes of Punjab are an indication of the bright and vibrant culture and lifestyle of the people.

The costumes are a mix of colours, comfort and beauty and Punjab is well known for the use of phulkari(embroidery) in its costumes. In most of the villages of Punjab men wear Pagri(turban), dhoti/lacha, kurta, khusa. Women wear gharara, or choridar pajama or colorful shalwar kameez, paranda, choli/duppata, khusa, kola puri chappal or tillay wali jutti. Whereas in urban areas of Punjab men and women follow latest trends and fashion, generally they wear different styles of shalwar kameez.

Cuisine

The extensive cuisine of Punjab can be vegetarian and non-vegetarian. One commonality between all Punjabi dishes is the liberal usage of ghee or clarified butter spices and Punjabis are fond of sweet-meats also. Most Punjabi food is eaten with either rice or roti. There are some dishes that are exclusive to Punjab such as Mah Di Dal, Paratha, Makai ki rotti, Saron Da Saag, and in cities Choley, Haleem, Baryani and other spicy dishes are popular. In beverages, tea is consumed in all seasons and as a custom most of Punjabis serve tea to their guests. Punjabis are also fond of Zarda, Gulab-Jamuns, Kheer, Jalaibi,Samosy, Pakorey etc. During summers people drink lassi, doodh-soda, aloo bokharey ka sharbat, lemonade etc.  These cuisines have become world-wide delicacies with large scale representation.

Sports

Punjabi people have fanatical interest in sports. Punjabi’s are fond of kabaddi, and wrestling, which is also popular in other parts of Pakistan and it’s also played on national level. Other games being played in Punjab region include Gilli-Danda, Khoo-Khoo, Yassu-Panju, Pitho-Garam, Ludo, Chuppan-Chupai, Baraf-Panni, Kanchy and some major sports include cricket, boxing, horse-racing, hockey and football. National Horse and Cattle Show at Lahore is the biggest festival where sports, exhibitions, and livestock competitions are held.

Cultural Festivals

There are numerous festivals which are celebrated by Punjabi people including some religious festivals such as Eid-Milad-Un-Nabi, Jumu’ah, Laylat-ul-Qadr etc. Urcs (devotional fairs),which are held at the shirnes of sufi saints, Melas and Nomaish (exhibitions).The Provincial capital Lahore is widely popular for its entertaining events and activities. Lahori’s are famous all over the country for their celebrations particularly for Basant festival (kite flying) in the spring season. Other festivals celebrated in Punjab region include Baisakhi, Teej, Kanak Katai etc.

Dance and Music

Bhangra is most commonly known Punjabi music genre and dance style. Punjabis passionately love folk songs/music, Qawali and Punjabi music is recognized throughout the world. The Tabla, Dhol, Dholki, Chimta, Flute and Sitar are all common instruments of this delightful culture. Punjabi dance is based around happiness, energy and enthusiasm.Different forms of dance in Punjab are: Loddi, Dhamal, Sammi, Kikli, Gatka, Bhangra, Giddha and Dandiya. Punjabi dances have been embraced by the American culture and others alike and now they are one of the most appreciated art forms.

Custums and Rituals

Some of the customs followed in Punjab have no foundation in Islam. However, the Punjabi culture has adopted those ceremonies and traditions from Hindu culture.

Birth Rituals

Punjabis celebrate birth of their child with great enthusiasm. Grandfather or grandmother or some respected elder member from the family puts honey with their index finger in child’s mouth called Ghutii. Sweets are distributed among friends and relatives and people bring gifts for the child and mother. Generally on 7^thday child’s head is shaven and Aqiqa ceremony is held, also sheep/goat is slaughtered.

Punjabi Weddings

Punjabi weddings are based on traditions and are conducted with strong reflection of the Punjabi culture followed by several pre-wedding customs and rituals (dholki, mayun, ubtan etc.)Punjabi weddings are very loud, energetic, and full of music, colors, fancy-dresses, food and dancing. Punjabi weddings have many customs and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times. In cities the wedding are celebrated following a blend of modern and traditional customs and the ceremony generally lasts for 3days, Mehndi, Barat (Nikkah+Ruksati) and Walima, followed by Chauti (bringing the bride back to her parents’ home the next day).

Funeral Rituals

At funerals after namaz-e-janaza it is customary to offer lunch to people who came for condolence. On 3^rdday of the funeral, Qul is held and every following thursday the Quran is recited (jumah-e-raat) followed by prayers for deceased and after 40days the chaliswaan is held. After which the funeral is over. Some families observe anniversaries yearly (barsi).There is no formal dress code for Punjabi funerals however people mostly wear shalwar kameez and casual clothing is observed. Funerals of Shia families are more intense. Both men and women wear black shalwar-kameez and rigorous crying and screaming is a common occurrence at such funerals.

Literature

Punjab is very rich with literature and Sufis adds more in its literature. Punjabi poetry is renowned for its extremely deep meaning, beautiful and hopeful use of words. The large number of Punjabi poetry is being translated throughout the world into many languages. Some famous poets of Punjabi are Sultan Bahu, Mia Mohammad Baksh, Baba Farid, Shah Hussain, Anwar Masood etc. Waris Shah, whose contribution to Punjabi literature is best-known for his seminal work in Heer Ranjha, known as Shakespeare of Punjabi language.  Bulleh Shah was a Punjabi Sufi poet, a humanist and a philosopher. The verse from Bulleh Shah primarily employed is called the Kafi, a style of Punjabi. Some other popular folk tales of Punjab include Sassi-Punnu, Sohni Mahiwal etc. that are passing through generations.

Arts and Crafts

Punjab is the major manufacturing industry in Pakistan’s economy and here each art enjoys a place of its own. The main crafts created in the highlands and other rural areas of Punjab are basketry, pottery, which are famous for their modern and traditional designs all over the world and are included in the best formations of Punjabis. bone work, textile, cloth woven on handlooms with stunning prints is embroidered in the rural-areas and the weavers produce colorful cloths like cotton, silk etc. embroidery, weaving, carpets, stone craft, jewelry, metal work along with truck art and other wood works. The craft of Punjab is its fundamental soul and its craft create its entity.

A Weird Trick to Stay Asleep All Night

A Weird Trick to Stay Asleep All Night 

Do you know that people who get enough sleep (about 7-9 hours in night) are more likely to have higher productivity, Feel more Energetic throughout the day, and experience less stress? Sleep is crucial for concentration, memory formation, and repairing and rejuvenating of cells of the body. Both mentally and physically, a good night sleep is essential for your health and energy. 

The Problem - Waking Up at Night:

Unfortunately, experts estimates that more than 70 million Americans have persistent trouble falling or stay asleep. If you are one of the million peoples who suffer, you know how frustrating it can be to lie awake inside the bed at night tossing and turning.

Finding an effective remedy is difficult. Some sleep aids require to your doctor, dealing with unpleasant side effects, and facing the possibilities of becoming dependent on drugs. Even over-the-counter sleep aids can be habit-forming.

The Solution - Staying Asleep, and Waked Up Refreshed 

The OTC or Prescription aids are not for you, you may want to try natural sleep supplements. Natural sleep supplements contains melatonin, a natural occurring compound that regulate sleeping cycles and also have value as a possible antioxidant. The better you sleep, the more energetic you feel in the morning and throughout the day. There are variety of sleep supplements available to help promote relaxing and refreshing sleep, but not all brands are equal in quality.

Suggested Benefits of Natural Sleep Supplements     

• Fall Asleep Faster.
• Stay Asleep Longer.
• Wake Up Feeling Refreshing and Rejuvenated.
• Safe and Effective All Natural Ingredients.
• Non Habit Forming.

   

K2: 2nd Highest Mountain in the World

K2: 2nd Highest Mountain in the World

Elevation: 28,253 feet (8,612 meters)
Prominence: 13,179 feet (4,017 meters)
Location: Karakoram Range, Pakistan/China, Asia
Coordinates: 35°52′57″ N / 76°30′48″ E
First Ascent: Achille Compagnoni and Lino Lacedelli (Italy), July 31, 1954 

 

K2, located on the Pakistan-Chinese border, is the 2nd highest mountain in the world; Pakistan's highest mountain; and the world's 22nd most prominent mountain.

Name Given by British Surveyor

The name K2 was given in 1852 by British surveyor T.G. Montgomerie with "K" designating the Karakoram Range and "2" since it was the 2nd peak listed. During his survey, Montgomerie, standing on Mt. Haramukh 125 miles to the south, noted two prominent peaks to the north, calling them K1 and K2. While he kept native names, he found that K2 did not have a known name.

 

Also Named Mount Godwin-Austen

Later K2 was named Mount Godwin-Austen for Haversham Godwin-Austen (1834-1923), an early British surveyor and explorer. Godwin-Austen climbed 1,000 meters up a spur of Masherbrum above Urdukas and fixed the approximate height and position of K2 from there, according to Catherine Moorehead, the author of The K2 Man (And His Molluscs), a biography of Godwin-Austen. This alternate name was never recognized.

 Balit Name for K2

A name for K2 is Chogori, derived from Balti words chhogo ri, meaning "large mountain." The Chinese call the mountain Qogir meaning "Great Mountain," while Balti locals call it Kechu.

Nickname is "The Savage Mountain"

K2 is nicknamed the "Savage Mountain" for its severe weather. It is typically climbed in June, July, or August. K2 has never been climbed in winter.

1902: First Attempt to Climb K2

British climbers Aleister Crowley (1875-1947), an occultist and hedonist, and Oscar Eckenstein (1859-1921) led an expedition of six climbers that made the first attempt to climb K2, from March to June, 1902. The party spent 68 days on the mountain, with only 8 clear days, attempting the northeast ridge. Spending two months at high altitude, the party made 5 summit attempts. The last one began on June 8 but 8 days of bad weather defeated them and they retreated after a high point of 21,407 feet (6,525 meters). Scraps of expedition clothing were later found below K2 and are displayed at Neptune Mountaineering in Boulder, Colorado.

1909: First Attempt on Abruzzi Spur

Italian climber Prince Luigi Amedeo (1873-1933), the Duke of Abruzzi, led an expedition to K2 in 1909. His party attempted the southeast ridge, the Abruzzi Spur, reaching an elevation of 20,505 feet (6,250 meters) before deciding that the climb was too difficult. The ridge is now the usual way that most climbers ascend K2. Before departing, the Duke said that the mountain would never be climbed.

1939: First American Attempt on K2

Fritz Wiessner, a great German climber transplanted to the US, led a 1939 American expedition that set a new world altitude record by reaching 27,500 feet on the Abruzzi Spur. The party was 656 feet from the summit before turning around. Four team members were killed.

1953: Famous Ice Axe Arrest Saves 5

One of the most famous events in American climbing history occurred during a 1953 expedition led by Charles Houston. A 10-day storm trapped the team at 25,592 feet. Abandoning a summit attempt, the climbers attempted to save 27-year-old Art Gilkey, who had developed altitude sickness, by descending to a lower altitude. At one point during their desperate descent, Pete Schoening saved five falling climbers by arresting their fall with the rope and his ice axe plunged behind a boulder. The ice axe is displayed at the Bradford Washburn American Mountaineering Museum in Golden, Colorado.

1977: Second Ascent by Japanese

The peak's 2nd ascent came on August 9, 1977, 23 years after K2's first ascent, by a Japanese team led by Ichiro Yoshizawa. The team also included Ashraf Aman, the first Pakistani climber to summit K2.

1978: First American Ascent

The first American ascent was in 1978. A strong team led by James Whittaker ascended a new route up the peak's Northeast Ridge.

Most Difficult 8,000-Meter Peak

K2 is one of the most difficult of the fourteen 8,000-meter peaks, offering technical climbing, severe weather conditions, and high avalanche danger. As of 2014, over 335 climbers have reached K2's summit, while at least 82 have died.

1986: 13 Climbers Die on K2

1986 was a tragic year on K2 with 13 climbers dying. Five climbers died in a severe storm between August 6 and August 10. Eight other climbers died in the preceding 6 weeks. Deaths were by avalanche, falling, and rockfall. The climbers killed by the storm were part of a group cobbled together from several failed expeditions. Three of the climbers reached the top on August 4. During the descent they met up with 4 other climbers and stayed at 26,000 feet where they were trapped in a storm. Five climbers died while only two survived.

Kaltenbrunner Climbs K2 without Extra Oxygen

As of 2013, 12 women have summitted K2, but four died on the descent.  On August 23, 2011, Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner reached the summit of K2, becoming the first woman to climb all 14 of the 8,000-meter mountains without using supplemental oxygen. Kaltenbrunner also became the second woman to climb the 8,000ers.

2008: 11 Climbers Die on K2

In August 2008, 11 climbers died on the upper slopes of K2 after an avalanche caused by a fallen ice serac either killed them outright or isolated them above The Bottleneck, a steep ice couloir.

K2 has High Fatality Rate

The fatality rate on K2 is 27%. If you attempt K2 you have a 1 in 4 chance of dying. Prior to the 2008 tragedy, of the 198 climbers who summitted the peak, 53 died on K2. That is three times the 9% fatality rate on Mount Everest. K2 is, next to Annapurna, the second most dangerous 8,000-meter peak.

 

  Books About K2
K2, having its share of epic ascents, is also a mountain of literature. Some of the best writing about the trials of mountaineering have come from gripping adventures on the Savage Mountain. Here are some books that I recommend if you want to read more about K2.

 K2: Triumph and Tragedy by Jim Curran. The summer of 1986, nine expeditions attempt K2. 27 climbers reach the summit, but 13 die on the savage mountain. Jim Curran writes a gripping account of that bittersweet summer of success and death.

K2: The 1939 Tragedy by Andrew J. Kaufman and William L. Putnam. An account of the controversial 1939 American expedition that put two climbers within 800 feet of the summit and the subsequent deaths of 4 climbers.

The Last Step: The American Ascent of K2 by Rick Ridgeway. A riveting account by expedition member Rick Ridgeway about the successful 1978 American ascent of K2. The book details the personal

K2: The Price of Conquest by Lino Lacedelli and Giovanni Cenacchi. The true story about the 1st ascent of K2 by its Italian victor, who tells about the lies and deception that allowed him to reach the summit without Walter Bonatti. A controversial revealing story about pride, ambition, and guilt.

dramas, including a love triangle, as well as the epic conclusion of a new route.

Poetry and its 50 Definitions

What is poetry and its 50 definitions

       Why is it that everyone can identify poetry, but no one can define it? No matter how comprehensive the description, there is always a poem that doesn’t quite fit the given parameters. And yet, despite its many forms and styles, many people have a firm idea that they do or don’t like poetry. This is often based on exposure to a very few examples, and often in a coercive setting (i.e. school!). What kind of poetic expression speaks to you? Is it possible that one you haven’t met yet will do the trick?

         Below is a list of definitions of poetry that I’ve come across, in no particular order. No. 50 is my own definition. Please feel free to use Comments to suggest others—your own or anyone else’s (please only give definitions of “poetry” or “poem”—not “poet” or other related items!). Ultimately, I’ll compile a resource page with the final results and acknowledge any contributions that usefully expand this list.

·        Poem n. a composition in meter: a composition of high beauty of thought or language and artistic form, in verse or prose: a creation, achievement, etc, marked by beauty or artistry.

·        Poetry is emotion put into measure.

·        Poetry is the language of the imagination and the passions.

·        … not to transmit thought but to set up in the reader’s sense a vibration corresponding to what was felt by the writer—is the peculiar function of poetry.

·        Poetry is the language in which man explores his own amazement.

·        Poetry is a rhythmical form of words which express an imaginative-emotional-intellectual experience of the writer’s…in such a way that it creates a similar experience in the mind of his reader or listener.

·        Poetry is the spontaneous outflow of powerful feelings: it takes its origins from emotion recollected in tranquility.

·        (Poetry is) literature in metrical form: any communication resembling poetry in beauty or the evocation of feeling.

·        Poetry is the revelation of a feeling that the poet believes to be interior and personal which the reader recognizes as his own.

·        Poetry (ancient Greek: ποιεω (poieo) = I create) is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. It consists largely of oral or literary works in which language is used in a manner that is felt by its user and audience to differ from ordinary prose.

·        Poetry is man’s rebellion against being what he is.

·        (Poetry is) a kind of ingenious nonsense.

·        (Poetry is) a literary expression in which words are used in a concentrated blend of sound and imagery to create an emotional response.

·        Poetry is an echo, asking a shadow to dance.

·        A poem begins with a lump in the throat, a home-sickness or a love-sickness. It is a reaching-out toward expression; an effort to find fulfillment. A complete poem is one where the emotion has found its thought and the thought has found the words.

·        Poetry is what gets lost in translation.

·        A good poem is a contribution to reality. The world is never the same once a good poem has been added to it. A good poem helps to change the shape of the universe, helps to extend everyone’s knowledge of himself and the world around him.

·        Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds.

·        Poetry is not a turning loose of emotion, but an escape from emotion; it is not the expression of personality, but an escape from personality. But, of course, only those who have personality and emotions know what it means to want to escape from these things.

·        Painting is silent poetry, and poetry is painting with the gift of speech.

·        (Poetry) is the lava of the imagination whose eruption prevents an earthquake.

·        Poetry is the deification of reality.

·        Poetry and Hums aren’t things which you get; they’re things which get you. And all you can do is go where they can find you.

·        Poetry is the journal of the sea animal living on land, wanting to fly in the air. Poetry is a search for syllables to shoot at the barriers of the unknown and the unknowable. Poetry is a phantom script telling how rainbows are made and why they go away.

·        Poetry is a mirror which makes beautiful that which is distorted.

·        Good poetry seems too simple and natural a thing that when we meet it we wonder that all men are not always poets. Poetry is nothing but healthy speech.

·        Genuine poetry can communicate before it is understood.

·        (Poetry is) texts in rhythmic form, often employing rhyme and usually shorter and more concentrated in language and ideas than either prose or drama.

·        Poetry comes nearer to vital truth than history.

·        Poetry is just the evidence of life. If your life is burning well, poetry is just the ash.

·        Poetry is the art of substantiating shadows, and of lending existence to nothing.

·        Poetry is basically anything that calls itself a poem.

·        Poetry is language at its most distilled and most powerful.

·        Poetry is a deal of joy and pain and wonder, with a dash of the dictionary.

·        Poetry is thoughts that breathe, and words that burn.

·        Poetry is all that is worth remembering in life.

·        (Poetry is) an imaginative response to experience reflecting a keen awareness of language. Its first characteristic is rhythm, marked by regularity far surpassing that of prose. Poetry’s rhyme affords an obvious difference from prose. Because poetry is relatively short, it is likely to be characterized by compactness and intense unity. Poetry insists on the specific and the concrete.

·        Poetry is the art of uniting pleasure with truth.

·        Poetry should… strike the reader as a wording of his own highest thoughts, and appear almost a remembrance.

·        Poetry is the rhythmical creation of beauty in words.

·        Poetry: the best words in the best order.

·        The distinction between historian and poet is not in the one writing prose and the other verse… the one describes the thing that has been, and the other a kind of thing that might be. Hence poetry is something more philosophic and of graver import than history, since its statements are of the nature rather of universals, whereas those of history are singulars.

·        Poetry is the art of creating imaginary gardens with real toads.

·        Poetry is the synthesis of hyacinths and biscuits.

·        Poetry heals the wounds inflicted by reason.

·        There is poetry as soon as we realize that we possess nothing.

·        Poetry is an orphan of silence. The words never quite equal the experience behind them.

·        Poetry is certainly something more than good sense, but it must be good sense at all events; just as a palace is more than a house, but it must be a house, at least.

·        The poem is a little myth of man’s capacity of making life meaningful. And in the end, the poem is not a thing we see—it is, rather, a light by which we may see—and what we see is life.

·        Poetry is an attempt to capture the essence of the chord struck in the poet by an instant of insight, in such a way that the same music will sound in the soul of the reader.

Harappa and Mohenjo-Dero: The Ancient Civilization Near Indus Valley Pakistan

Harappa and Mohe-Darnjoo

In 1856, a group of British railroad engineers uncovered an ancient and advanced civilization. The engineers were laying tracks through the Indus River Valley in present day Pakistan. They searched the area for stone to make ballast. Ballast is crushed rock placed around railroad tracks to drain water from the path of the train. The engineers found bricks that seemed very old, but were formed exactly alike. The local people told the engineers of the ruins of an ancient city made of the same bricks. The engineers soon realized that the bricks were part of one of the earliest advanced civilizations in history.

Archaeologists later discovered more than 1000 settlements along the banks of the Indus River. We don’t know what those ancient people called the cities they lived in, but we now refer to the two largest as Harappa, after a nearby village, and Mohenjo Daro, a local term that means “hill of the dead.”

Harappa and Mohenjo Daro were expertly planned cities that flourished more than 4500 years ago. The cities were built with a grid pattern of wide, straight streets. Thick walls surrounded the cities. Many people lived in sturdy brick houses that had as many as three floors. Some houses had bathrooms and toilets that connected to the world’s first sewers. A system of canals provided a reliable source of water for growing wheat and barley. There is also evidence that people herded sheep, cattle and goats.

The ancient people of the Indus River Valley had a highly advanced knowledge of mathematics and a sophisticated system of weights and measures. For example, the bricks they built with–even those used in different cities–were the same size. This suggests that the cities may have had the same government. Clay tablets indicate that the people of the Indus River Valley developed a writing system that may be even older than Sumerian writing.

Archaeologists have also found evidence of musical instruments, toys and games, and pottery. The people of the Indus River Valley were very interested in cleanliness. Excavators have uncovered evidence of combs, soaps, and medicine. Archaeologists found a gravesite with the remains of people whose teeth had been drilled, so the cities may have practiced a primitive form of dentistry.

The Indus River Valley cities traded with places as far away as Mesopotamia. The people made jewelry from stones. Traders also sold cotton cloth and hard wood from the teak trees that grew in the valley.

The a ncient cities along the Indus River Valley may have been home to more than five million people, but the civilization went into decline about 1700BCE.

What happened to the Indus River Valley cities remains a mystery, and the clues left behind provide many possible explanations.

The people of the Indus Valley cities may have unintentionally destroyed their environment. They may have overgrazed their land or exhausted their soil. There is evidence that the Indus Valley people cut down the forests in their region. In addition to leaving the people without wood for building or fuel, the lack of forest cover could have caused severe flooding.

It is also possible the same moving tectonic plates that created the Himalayas may have caused a devastating earthquake, or the people may have been defeated by another culture.

What we know about the Indus civilization is still evolving. Archaeologists have excavated only a fraction of the many cities and settlements of the region. We have not yet deciphered their writing, but if we do, we may learn their form of government, their religious beliefs, and the social structure of their society. In time, we may understand why the civilization developed, how they thrived for more than a millennium, and what became of the ancient people of the Indus River Valley.